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Core Concepts

measured is a library for measurements and quantities.

PyPi Python Versions

measured

The goal of the measured library is to provide a sound foundation for recording and converting physical quantities, while maintaining the integrity of their units and dimensions.

While it aims to be the fastest library of its kind, automatically tracking the units and dimensions of quantities introduces significant overhead. You can use measured for applications where the accuracy of the units is more important than raw numerical computing speed.

The value classes of measured should generally be treated as immutable. Rather than setting the magnitude of a Quantity, consider instantiating a new one, or performing arithmetic on an existing one to produce new values. Instances of Dimension, Prefix, and Unit are always singletons within a Python process.

For more background on the approach taken by this library, please see the material on quantity calculus and dimensional analysis. measured uses the terms "dimension", "unit", "prefix", and "quantity" in the same way.

Examples:

>>> from measured.si import Meter, Second
>>> distance = 10 * Meter
>>> time = 2 * Second
>>> speed = distance / time
>>> assert speed == 5 * Meter / Second

Attributes: Fundamental dimensions

Number (Dimension): the basis of [counting and measuring][1], used to define
    [dimensionless quantities][2]

    [1]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number

    [2]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimensionless_quantity

Length (Dimension): [distance][1] or extent through space

    [1]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Length

Time (Dimension): [what clocks read][1], the intervals between events

    [1]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time

Mass (Dimension): how much [matter][1] is in a physical body

    [1]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass

Charge (Dimension): how strongly matter [interacts with the electric field][1]

    [1]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_charge

Temperature (Dimension): the average amount of [kinetic energy][1] in a system

    [1]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature

AmountOfSubstance (Dimension): how many [elementary entities][1] are in an object

    [1]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mole_(unit)

LuminousIntensity (Dimension): how strong a [light source][1] is over a volume

    [1]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminous_intensity

Information (Dimension): how much [entropy][1] is present in a random variable

    [1]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information#Information_theory

Attributes: Derived dimensions

Area (Dimension):

Volume (Dimension):

PlaneAngle (Dimension):

SolidAngle (Dimension):

Speed (Dimension):

Acceleration (Dimension):

Jerk (Dimension):

Snap (Dimension):

Crackle (Dimension):

Pop (Dimension):

Frequency (Dimension):

Force (Dimension):

Energy (Dimension):

Power (Dimension):

Current (Dimension):

Potential (Dimension):

Capacitance (Dimension):

Resistance (Dimension):

Conductance (Dimension):

Inductance (Dimension):

MagneticFlux (Dimension):

MagneticBField (Dimension):

LuminousFlux (Dimension):

Illuminance (Dimension):

RadioactiveDose (Dimension):

Catalysis (Dimension):

Attributes: Base Prefixes

IdentityPrefix (Prefix): represents the number 1, expressed as the prefix 0⁰

Attributes: Base Units

One (Unit): represents the number 1, expressed as a unit of dimension `Number`

Attributes: Logarithms

Bel (Logarithm): A logarithmic ratio in base 10
Decibel (Logarithm): 1/10th of a Bel
Neper (Logarithm): A logarithmic ratio in base _e_

measured.Dimension

Dimension represents the kind of physical quantity being measured.

Unless you're doing something really cool, you probably won't instantiate new dimensions directly. Instead, you'll import the base dimensions and combine them through multiplication, division, or exponentation.

Attributes:

Name Type Description
name Optional[str]

The name of this dimension, which may not be set in the case of complex dimensions
symbol Optional[str]

The conventional dimensional analysis symbol of this dimension
exponents Tuple[int, ...]

The exponents that define this dimension in terms of the fundamental dimensions

Examples:

>>> from measured import (
...     Number,
...     Length,
...     Time,
...     Mass,
...     Current,
...     Temperature,
...     AmountOfSubstance,
...     LuminousIntensity,
...     Information
... )
>>> Length.symbol
'L'
>>> Length.name
'length'

These dimensions form the basis for more complex dimensions, which can be
produced through multiplication, exponentation, and division.

>>> from measured import Area, Volume, Frequency, Speed
>>> assert Area == Length * Length
>>> assert Volume == Length**3
>>> assert Speed == Length / Time
>>> assert Frequency == Number / Time

`measured` maintains `Dimension` instances as singletons within a single
process, so they can be used in both equality and identity tests.

>>> assert Volume is Length**3

Dimensions are hashable and may be used as keys in dictionaries.

>>> lookup = {Volume: 'spacious'}
>>> lookup[Volume]
'spacious'

Dimensions can be serialized in a number of ways, preserving their identity.

>>> import pickle
>>> assert pickle.loads(pickle.dumps(Volume)) is Volume

>>> import json
>>> from measured.json import MeasuredJSONEncoder, MeasuredJSONDecoder
>>> json.dumps(Length, cls=MeasuredJSONEncoder)
'{"__measured__": "Dimension", "name": "length", "symbol": "L", ...}'

While using `measured`'s [JSON codecs](../serialization), Dimensions may be
deserialized directly from that JSON representation.

>>> encoded = json.dumps(Length, cls=MeasuredJSONEncoder)
>>> json.loads(encoded, cls=MeasuredJSONDecoder)
Dimension(exponents=(0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0), name='length', symbol='L')

With measured's JSON codecs installed, you can omit passing the encoder and
decoder.

>>> from measured.json import codecs_installed
>>> with codecs_installed():
...     assert json.loads(json.dumps(Volume)) is Volume
Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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class Dimension:
    """Dimension represents the kind of physical quantity being measured.

    Unless you're doing something really cool, you probably won't instantiate new
    dimensions directly.  Instead, you'll import the base dimensions and combine them
    through multiplication, division, or exponentation.

    Attributes:
        name (Optional[str]): The name of this dimension, which may not be set in the
            case of complex dimensions

        symbol (Optional[str]): The conventional [dimensional
            analysis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimensional_analysis#Definition)
            symbol of this dimension

        exponents (Tuple[int, ...]): The exponents that define this dimension in terms
            of the fundamental dimensions

    Examples:

        >>> from measured import (
        ...     Number,
        ...     Length,
        ...     Time,
        ...     Mass,
        ...     Current,
        ...     Temperature,
        ...     AmountOfSubstance,
        ...     LuminousIntensity,
        ...     Information
        ... )
        >>> Length.symbol
        'L'
        >>> Length.name
        'length'

        These dimensions form the basis for more complex dimensions, which can be
        produced through multiplication, exponentation, and division.

        >>> from measured import Area, Volume, Frequency, Speed
        >>> assert Area == Length * Length
        >>> assert Volume == Length**3
        >>> assert Speed == Length / Time
        >>> assert Frequency == Number / Time

        `measured` maintains `Dimension` instances as singletons within a single
        process, so they can be used in both equality and identity tests.

        >>> assert Volume is Length**3

        Dimensions are hashable and may be used as keys in dictionaries.

        >>> lookup = {Volume: 'spacious'}
        >>> lookup[Volume]
        'spacious'

        Dimensions can be serialized in a number of ways, preserving their identity.

        >>> import pickle
        >>> assert pickle.loads(pickle.dumps(Volume)) is Volume

        >>> import json
        >>> from measured.json import MeasuredJSONEncoder, MeasuredJSONDecoder
        >>> json.dumps(Length, cls=MeasuredJSONEncoder)
        '{"__measured__": "Dimension", "name": "length", "symbol": "L", ...}'

        While using `measured`'s [JSON codecs](../serialization), Dimensions may be
        deserialized directly from that JSON representation.

        >>> encoded = json.dumps(Length, cls=MeasuredJSONEncoder)
        >>> json.loads(encoded, cls=MeasuredJSONDecoder)
        Dimension(exponents=(0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0), name='length', symbol='L')

        With measured's JSON codecs installed, you can omit passing the encoder and
        decoder.

        >>> from measured.json import codecs_installed
        >>> with codecs_installed():
        ...     assert json.loads(json.dumps(Volume)) is Volume
    """

    _known: ClassVar[Dict[Tuple[int, ...], "Dimension"]] = {}
    _initialized: bool

    _fundamental: ClassVar[List["Dimension"]] = []
    _by_name: ClassVar[Dict[str, "Dimension"]] = {}

    __slots__ = ("_initialized", "exponents", "name", "symbol")

    exponents: Tuple[int, ...]
    name: Optional[str]
    symbol: Optional[str]

    def __new__(
        cls,
        exponents: Tuple[int, ...],
        name: Optional[str] = None,
        symbol: Optional[str] = None,
    ) -> "Dimension":
        key = exponents
        if key in cls._known:
            return cls._known[key]

        self = super().__new__(cls)
        self._initialized = False
        cls._known[key] = self
        return self

    def __init__(
        self,
        exponents: Tuple[int, ...],
        name: Optional[str] = None,
        symbol: Optional[str] = None,
    ) -> None:
        if self._initialized:
            return

        self.exponents = exponents
        self.name = name
        self.symbol = symbol
        self._initialized = True

        if name:
            self._by_name[name] = self

    @classmethod
    def fundamental(cls) -> Iterable["Dimension"]:
        """Returns the registered fundamental dimensions

        Fundamental dimensions are not derived from other dimensions, and they will
        always have an `exponents` tuple with a single `1`, like `[0, 0, 1, 0, 0...]`
        (except for `Number`, which is all `0`s).

        The fundamental dimensions are those defined directly using
        [`Dimension.define`][measured.Dimension.define], like those provided by
        `measured`.  The length and order of these Dimensions is also the length and
        order of each Dimensions `exponents` tuple.
        """
        return list(cls._fundamental)

    @classmethod
    def define(cls, name: str, symbol: str) -> "Dimension":
        """Defines a new fundamental Dimension

        Used by `measured` itself to define the fundamental Dimensions.  You may define
        additional dimensions, but be aware that doing so will change the cardinality of
        the `exponents` tuple for _all_ defined Dimensions.
        """
        index = len(cls._fundamental)
        if index == 0:
            # the first dimension must be Number, with an exponent of zero (identity)
            exponents = tuple([0])
        else:
            # other dimensions start with their exponent at one, and all others zero
            exponents = tuple(([0] * index) + [1])

        dimension = cls(exponents, name=name, symbol=symbol)

        # resize the keys for all previously known dimensions to account
        # for this new fundamental dimension
        for previous in list(cls._known.values()):
            del cls._known[previous.exponents]
            previous.exponents += (0,)
            cls._known[previous.exponents] = previous

        cls._fundamental.append(dimension)

        return dimension

    @classmethod
    def named(cls, name: str) -> "Dimension | None":
        """Return a previously registered named Dimension if it is registered"""
        return cls._by_name.get(name)

    @classmethod
    def derive(
        cls, dimension: "Dimension", name: str, symbol: Optional[str] = None
    ) -> "Dimension":
        """Registers a new named dimension derived from other dimension"""
        dimension.name = name
        dimension.symbol = symbol or str(dimension)
        cls._by_name[name] = dimension
        return dimension

    def unit(self, name: str, symbol: str) -> "Unit":
        """Define a new unit of this dimension"""
        return Unit.define(self, name, symbol)

    def scale(self, zero: "Quantity", name: str, symbol: str) -> "Unit":
        """Define a new scale of this dimension, setting a zero point of another unit"""
        unit = self.unit(name, symbol)
        conversions.translate(unit, zero)
        return unit

    # Pickle support

    def __getnewargs_ex__(self) -> Tuple[Tuple[Tuple[int, ...]], Dict[str, Any]]:
        return (self.exponents,), {}

    # JSON support

    def __json__(self) -> Dict[str, Any]:
        return {
            "__measured__": "Dimension",
            "name": self.name,
            "symbol": self.symbol,
            "exponents": list(self.exponents),
        }

    @classmethod
    def __from_json__(cls, json_object: Dict[str, Any]) -> "Dimension":
        return Dimension(tuple(json_object["exponents"]))

    # Pydantic support

    @classmethod
    def __get_pydantic_core_schema__(
        cls, source: Type[Any], handler: "GetCoreSchemaHandler"
    ) -> "core_schema.CoreSchema":
        from pydantic_core import core_schema

        return core_schema.no_info_plain_validator_function(
            cls._pydantic_validate,
            serialization=core_schema.plain_serializer_function_ser_schema(
                cls.__json__, when_used="json-unless-none"
            ),
        )

    @classmethod
    def _pydantic_validate(
        cls, value: Union[str, Dict[str, Any], "Dimension"]
    ) -> "Dimension":
        if isinstance(value, dict):
            return cls.__from_json__(value)

        if isinstance(value, str):
            if value not in cls._by_name:
                raise ValueError(f"{value!r} is not a named Dimension")

            return cls._by_name[value]

        if isinstance(value, Dimension):
            return value

        raise ValueError(f"No conversion from {value!r} to Dimension")

    __repr__ = formatting.dimension_repr
    __str__ = formatting.dimension_str
    _repr_pretty_ = formatting.dimension_pretty
    _repr_html_ = formatting.mathml(formatting.dimension_mathml)

    # https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimensional_analysis#Dimensional_homogeneity
    #
    # Only commensurable quantities (physical quantities having the same dimension)
    # may be compared, equated, added, or subtracted.

    def __add__(self, other: "Dimension") -> "Dimension":
        if self is not other:
            return NotImplemented

        return self

    def __sub__(self, other: "Dimension") -> "Dimension":
        if self is not other:
            return NotImplemented

        return self

    # https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimensional_analysis#Dimensional_homogeneity
    #
    # The dimensions form an [abelian
    # group](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abelian_group) under multiplication, so:
    # One may take ratios of incommensurable quantities (quantities with different
    # dimensions), and multiply or divide them.

    @staticmethod
    @lru_cache(maxsize=None)
    def _multiply(self: "Dimension", other: "Dimension") -> "Dimension":
        return Dimension(tuple(s + o for s, o in zip(self.exponents, other.exponents)))

    def __mul__(self, other: "Dimension") -> "Dimension":
        if not isinstance(other, Dimension):
            return NotImplemented

        return Dimension._multiply(self, other)

    @staticmethod
    @lru_cache(maxsize=None)
    def _divide(self: "Dimension", other: "Dimension") -> "Dimension":
        return Dimension(tuple(s - o for s, o in zip(self.exponents, other.exponents)))

    def __truediv__(self, other: "Dimension") -> "Dimension":
        if not isinstance(other, Dimension):
            return NotImplemented

        return Dimension._divide(self, other)

    def __pow__(self, power: int) -> "Dimension":
        if not isinstance(power, int):
            return NotImplemented

        return Dimension(tuple(s * power for s in self.exponents))

    def root(self, degree: int) -> "Dimension":
        """Returns the nth root of this Dimension"""
        if not isinstance(degree, int):
            raise TypeError(f"degree should be an integer, not {type(degree)}")

        if degree == 0:
            return Number

        if any(s // degree != s / degree for s in self.exponents):
            raise FractionalDimensionError(degree, self)

        return Dimension(tuple(s // degree for s in self.exponents))

    @lru_cache(maxsize=None)
    def as_ratio(self) -> Tuple["Dimension", "Dimension"]:
        """Returns this dimension, split into a numerator and denominator"""
        numerator = tuple(e if e >= 0 else 0 for e in self.exponents)
        denominator = tuple(-e if e < 0 else 0 for e in self.exponents)
        return Dimension(numerator), Dimension(denominator)

    def is_factor(self, other: "Dimension") -> bool:
        """Returns true if this dimension is a factor of the other dimension"""
        if self is other or self is Number:
            return True

        exponents = [
            i
            for i, (mine, theirs) in enumerate(zip(self.exponents, other.exponents))
            if (theirs and mine) and theirs >= mine
        ]
        return bool(exponents)

as_ratio() -> Tuple[Dimension, Dimension] cached

Returns this dimension, split into a numerator and denominator

Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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@lru_cache(maxsize=None)
def as_ratio(self) -> Tuple["Dimension", "Dimension"]:
    """Returns this dimension, split into a numerator and denominator"""
    numerator = tuple(e if e >= 0 else 0 for e in self.exponents)
    denominator = tuple(-e if e < 0 else 0 for e in self.exponents)
    return Dimension(numerator), Dimension(denominator)

define(name: str, symbol: str) -> Dimension classmethod

Defines a new fundamental Dimension

Used by measured itself to define the fundamental Dimensions. You may define additional dimensions, but be aware that doing so will change the cardinality of the exponents tuple for all defined Dimensions.

Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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@classmethod
def define(cls, name: str, symbol: str) -> "Dimension":
    """Defines a new fundamental Dimension

    Used by `measured` itself to define the fundamental Dimensions.  You may define
    additional dimensions, but be aware that doing so will change the cardinality of
    the `exponents` tuple for _all_ defined Dimensions.
    """
    index = len(cls._fundamental)
    if index == 0:
        # the first dimension must be Number, with an exponent of zero (identity)
        exponents = tuple([0])
    else:
        # other dimensions start with their exponent at one, and all others zero
        exponents = tuple(([0] * index) + [1])

    dimension = cls(exponents, name=name, symbol=symbol)

    # resize the keys for all previously known dimensions to account
    # for this new fundamental dimension
    for previous in list(cls._known.values()):
        del cls._known[previous.exponents]
        previous.exponents += (0,)
        cls._known[previous.exponents] = previous

    cls._fundamental.append(dimension)

    return dimension

derive(dimension: Dimension, name: str, symbol: Optional[str] = None) -> Dimension classmethod

Registers a new named dimension derived from other dimension

Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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@classmethod
def derive(
    cls, dimension: "Dimension", name: str, symbol: Optional[str] = None
) -> "Dimension":
    """Registers a new named dimension derived from other dimension"""
    dimension.name = name
    dimension.symbol = symbol or str(dimension)
    cls._by_name[name] = dimension
    return dimension

fundamental() -> Iterable[Dimension] classmethod

Returns the registered fundamental dimensions

Fundamental dimensions are not derived from other dimensions, and they will always have an exponents tuple with a single 1, like [0, 0, 1, 0, 0...] (except for Number, which is all 0s).

The fundamental dimensions are those defined directly using Dimension.define, like those provided by measured. The length and order of these Dimensions is also the length and order of each Dimensions exponents tuple.

Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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@classmethod
def fundamental(cls) -> Iterable["Dimension"]:
    """Returns the registered fundamental dimensions

    Fundamental dimensions are not derived from other dimensions, and they will
    always have an `exponents` tuple with a single `1`, like `[0, 0, 1, 0, 0...]`
    (except for `Number`, which is all `0`s).

    The fundamental dimensions are those defined directly using
    [`Dimension.define`][measured.Dimension.define], like those provided by
    `measured`.  The length and order of these Dimensions is also the length and
    order of each Dimensions `exponents` tuple.
    """
    return list(cls._fundamental)

is_factor(other: Dimension) -> bool

Returns true if this dimension is a factor of the other dimension

Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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def is_factor(self, other: "Dimension") -> bool:
    """Returns true if this dimension is a factor of the other dimension"""
    if self is other or self is Number:
        return True

    exponents = [
        i
        for i, (mine, theirs) in enumerate(zip(self.exponents, other.exponents))
        if (theirs and mine) and theirs >= mine
    ]
    return bool(exponents)

named(name: str) -> Dimension | None classmethod

Return a previously registered named Dimension if it is registered

Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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@classmethod
def named(cls, name: str) -> "Dimension | None":
    """Return a previously registered named Dimension if it is registered"""
    return cls._by_name.get(name)

root(degree: int) -> Dimension

Returns the nth root of this Dimension

Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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def root(self, degree: int) -> "Dimension":
    """Returns the nth root of this Dimension"""
    if not isinstance(degree, int):
        raise TypeError(f"degree should be an integer, not {type(degree)}")

    if degree == 0:
        return Number

    if any(s // degree != s / degree for s in self.exponents):
        raise FractionalDimensionError(degree, self)

    return Dimension(tuple(s // degree for s in self.exponents))

scale(zero: Quantity, name: str, symbol: str) -> Unit

Define a new scale of this dimension, setting a zero point of another unit

Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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def scale(self, zero: "Quantity", name: str, symbol: str) -> "Unit":
    """Define a new scale of this dimension, setting a zero point of another unit"""
    unit = self.unit(name, symbol)
    conversions.translate(unit, zero)
    return unit

unit(name: str, symbol: str) -> Unit

Define a new unit of this dimension

Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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def unit(self, name: str, symbol: str) -> "Unit":
    """Define a new unit of this dimension"""
    return Unit.define(self, name, symbol)

measured.Unit

Unit is a predetermined reference amount or definition for a measurable quantity

measured includes a number of well-known units, and additional contributions are always welcome. The SI system of units is covered in the measured.si package.

Attributes:

name (Optional[str]): the name of this unit, which may not be set in the case
    of complex derived units

symbol (Optional[str]): the symbol of this unit, which may not be set in the
    case of complex derived units

prefix (Prefix): the prefix to multiply this unit by (`IdentityPrefix` for
    unprefixed units)

factors (Mapping["Unit", int]): a mapping of the base units and their powers
    that make up a compound unit, or `{self: 1}` for base units

Examples:

>>> from measured import Length, Time, Speed
>>> from measured.si import Meter, Second
>>> Meter.name, Meter.symbol
('meter', 'm')

>>> meter_per_second = Meter / Second
>>> assert meter_per_second.dimension is Speed
>>> assert meter_per_second.dimension is Length / Time
>>> meter_per_second.name, meter_per_second.symbol
(None, None)

>>> back_to_meter = (meter_per_second * Second)
>>> back_to_meter.name, back_to_meter.symbol
('meter', 'm')

>>> assert Meter.factors == {Meter: 1}
>>> assert Second.factors == {Second: 1}
>>> assert meter_per_second.factors == {Meter: 1, Second: -1}


[`Unit`][measured.Unit] values define format specifiers to control how they are
formatted as strings:

>>> from measured.si import Meter, Second
>>> str(Meter / Second)
'm⋅s⁻¹'
>>> f"{Meter / Second}"
'm⋅s⁻¹'
>>> f"{Meter**2 / Second**2}"
'm²⋅s⁻²'

The `/` format specifier presents the unit as a ratio:

>>> f"{Meter / Second:/}"
'm/s'
>>> f"{Meter**2/Second:/}"
'm²/s'
>>> f"{Meter**2/Second**2:/}"
'm²/s²'
Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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class Unit:
    """Unit is a predetermined reference amount or definition for a measurable quantity

    `measured` includes a number of well-known units, and additional contributions are
    always welcome.  The SI system of units is covered in the [`measured.si`](../si)
    package.

    Attributes:

        name (Optional[str]): the name of this unit, which may not be set in the case
            of complex derived units

        symbol (Optional[str]): the symbol of this unit, which may not be set in the
            case of complex derived units

        prefix (Prefix): the prefix to multiply this unit by (`IdentityPrefix` for
            unprefixed units)

        factors (Mapping["Unit", int]): a mapping of the base units and their powers
            that make up a compound unit, or `{self: 1}` for base units

    Examples:

        >>> from measured import Length, Time, Speed
        >>> from measured.si import Meter, Second
        >>> Meter.name, Meter.symbol
        ('meter', 'm')

        >>> meter_per_second = Meter / Second
        >>> assert meter_per_second.dimension is Speed
        >>> assert meter_per_second.dimension is Length / Time
        >>> meter_per_second.name, meter_per_second.symbol
        (None, None)

        >>> back_to_meter = (meter_per_second * Second)
        >>> back_to_meter.name, back_to_meter.symbol
        ('meter', 'm')

        >>> assert Meter.factors == {Meter: 1}
        >>> assert Second.factors == {Second: 1}
        >>> assert meter_per_second.factors == {Meter: 1, Second: -1}


        [`Unit`][measured.Unit] values define format specifiers to control how they are
        formatted as strings:

        >>> from measured.si import Meter, Second
        >>> str(Meter / Second)
        'm⋅s⁻¹'
        >>> f"{Meter / Second}"
        'm⋅s⁻¹'
        >>> f"{Meter**2 / Second**2}"
        'm²⋅s⁻²'

        The `/` format specifier presents the unit as a ratio:

        >>> f"{Meter / Second:/}"
        'm/s'
        >>> f"{Meter**2/Second:/}"
        'm²/s'
        >>> f"{Meter**2/Second**2:/}"
        'm²/s²'
    """

    UnitKey = Tuple[Prefix, Tuple[Tuple["Unit", int], ...]]

    _known: ClassVar[Dict[UnitKey, "Unit"]] = {}
    _initialized: bool

    _base: ClassVar[Set["Unit"]] = set()
    _by_name: ClassVar[Dict[str, "Unit"]] = {}
    _by_symbol: ClassVar[Dict[str, "Unit"]] = {}

    __slots__ = ("_initialized", "prefix", "factors", "dimension", "names", "symbols")

    prefix: Prefix
    factors: Mapping["Unit", int]
    dimension: Dimension
    names: Tuple[str, ...]
    symbols: Tuple[str, ...]

    def __new__(
        cls,
        prefix: Prefix,
        factors: Mapping["Unit", int],
        dimension: Dimension,
        name: Optional[str] = None,
        symbol: Optional[str] = None,
    ) -> "Unit":
        key = cls._build_key(prefix, factors)
        if key in cls._known:
            return cls._known[key]

        if name and name in cls._by_name:
            return cls._by_name[name]

        self = super().__new__(cls)
        self._initialized = False
        if not factors:
            key = cls._build_key(prefix, {self: 1})
        cls._known[key] = self
        return self

    def __init__(
        self,
        prefix: Prefix,
        factors: Mapping["Unit", int],
        dimension: Dimension,
        name: Optional[str] = None,
        symbol: Optional[str] = None,
    ) -> None:
        if self._initialized:
            return

        self.prefix = prefix
        self.factors = factors or {self: 1}
        self.dimension = dimension
        self.names = tuple()
        self.symbols = tuple()
        self.alias(name=name, symbol=symbol)
        self._initialized = True

    @classmethod
    def _build_key(cls, prefix: Prefix, factors: Mapping["Unit", int]) -> UnitKey:
        factor_key = tuple(sorted(factors.items(), key=lambda pair: id(pair[0])))
        return (prefix, factor_key)

    @classmethod
    def base(cls) -> Iterable["Unit"]:
        return list(cls._base)

    @classmethod
    def define(cls, dimension: Dimension, name: str, symbol: str) -> "Unit":
        """Defines a new base unit"""
        if name in cls._by_name:
            raise ValueError(f"A unit named {name} is already defined")

        if symbol in cls._by_symbol:
            raise ValueError(f"A unit with symbol {symbol} is already defined")

        unit = cls(IdentityPrefix, {}, dimension, name, symbol)
        cls._base.add(unit)
        return unit

    @classmethod
    def derive(cls, unit: "Unit", name: str, symbol: str) -> "Unit":
        """Registers a new named unit derived from other units"""
        unit.alias(name=name, symbol=symbol)
        return unit

    @classmethod
    def named(cls, name: str) -> "Unit":
        """Returns the unit with the given name"""
        return cls._by_name[name]

    @classmethod
    def resolve_symbol(cls, symbol: str) -> "Unit":
        """Returns the unit with the given (possibly prefixed) symbol"""
        if symbol in cls._by_symbol:
            return cls._by_symbol[symbol]

        for i in range(1, len(symbol)):
            try:
                prefix = Prefix.resolve_symbol(symbol[:i])
                unit = cls._by_symbol[symbol[i:]]
            except KeyError:
                continue

            return prefix * unit

        if symbol in cls._by_name:
            return cls._by_name[symbol]

        raise KeyError(f"No unit (or prefixed unit) matching {symbol!r}")

    def equals(self, other: "Quantity") -> None:
        """Defines a conversion between this Unit and another"""
        if other.unit == self and self is not One:
            raise ValueError("No need to define conversions for a unit and itself")
        conversions.equate(1 * self, other)

    def alias(self, name: Optional[str] = None, symbol: Optional[str] = None) -> None:
        """Adds an alternative name and/or symbol to the unit"""
        if name:
            if name in self._by_name and self._by_name[name] is not self:
                raise ValueError(f"A unit named {name} is already defined")

            self.names = self.names + (name,)
            self._by_name[name] = self

        if symbol:
            if symbol in self._by_symbol and self._by_symbol[symbol] is not self:
                raise ValueError(f"A unit with symbol {symbol} is already defined")

            if symbol and " " in symbol:
                raise ValueError(f"{symbol!r} will not be parsable if it has spaces.")

            self.symbols = self.symbols + (symbol,)
            self._by_symbol[symbol] = self

    @property
    def name(self) -> Optional[str]:
        return self.names[0] if self.names else None

    @property
    def symbol(self) -> Optional[str]:
        return self.symbols[0] if self.symbols else None

    # Pickle support

    def __getnewargs_ex__(
        self,
    ) -> Tuple[Tuple[Prefix, Mapping["Unit", int], Dimension], Dict[str, Any]]:
        factors = {} if self.factors == {self: 1} else self.factors
        args = (self.prefix, factors, self.dimension)
        kwargs = {"name": self.name, "symbol": self.symbol}
        return args, kwargs

    # JSON support

    def __json__(self) -> Dict[str, Any]:
        prefix, factors = self._build_key(self.prefix, self.factors)
        return {
            "__measured__": "Unit",
            "name": self.name,
            "symbol": self.symbol,
            "dimension": {"__measured__": "Dimension", **self.dimension.__json__()},
            "prefix": (
                {"__measured__": "Prefix", **prefix.__json__()}
                if prefix.quantify() != 1
                else None
            ),
            "factors": None if factors == ((self, 1),) else factors,
        }

    @classmethod
    def __from_json__(cls, json_object: Dict[str, Any]) -> "Unit":
        if not json_object["factors"]:
            return cls._by_name[json_object["name"]]

        prefix = json_object["prefix"] or Prefix(0, 0)
        factors = dict(json_object["factors"])
        dimension = json_object["dimension"]
        return Unit(prefix, factors, dimension)

    # Pydantic support

    @classmethod
    def __get_pydantic_core_schema__(
        cls, source: Type[Any], handler: "GetCoreSchemaHandler"
    ) -> "core_schema.CoreSchema":
        from pydantic_core import core_schema

        return core_schema.no_info_plain_validator_function(
            cls._pydantic_validate,
            serialization=core_schema.plain_serializer_function_ser_schema(
                cls.__json__, when_used="json-unless-none"
            ),
        )

    @classmethod
    def _pydantic_validate(cls, value: Union[str, Dict[str, Any], "Unit"]) -> "Unit":
        if isinstance(value, dict):
            return cls.__from_json__(value)

        if isinstance(value, str):
            if value not in cls._by_name:
                raise ValueError(f"{value!r} is not a named Unit")

            return cls._by_name[value]

        if isinstance(value, Unit):
            return value

        raise ValueError(f"No conversion from {value!r} to Unit")

    __repr__ = formatting.unit_repr
    __str__ = formatting.unit_str
    __format__ = formatting.unit_format
    _repr_pretty_ = formatting.unit_pretty
    _repr_html_ = formatting.mathml(formatting.unit_mathml)

    @classmethod
    def parse(cls, string: str) -> "Unit":
        """
        Parses a unit from a string.

        Examples:

            It is important to import any modules of units you will be parsing.  Units
            and their symbols are registered when they are first imported and created.

            >>> from measured import Unit, si

            Integer and floating point quantities can be parsed, along with units of
            any complexity.

            >>> meter_per_second = Unit.parse('m/s')
            >>> meter_per_second.dimension is Speed
            True
            >>> amperes_cubed_per_area = Unit.parse('A³/m²')
            >>> from measured.si import Meter, Ampere
            >>> amperes_cubed_per_area is Ampere**3/Meter**2
            True
            >>> str(amperes_cubed_per_area)
            'C³⋅s⁻³⋅m⁻²'

            Measured can parse any unit in the same format it produces with `str`, but
            also understands easier-to-type versions:

            >>> assert Unit.parse('m^2/s') == Unit.parse('m²⋅s⁻¹')
            >>> assert Unit.parse('m^2*s') == Unit.parse('m²⋅s')
        """
        return cast(Unit, parser.parse(string, start="unit"))

    @classmethod
    def _simplify(cls, factors: Mapping["Unit", int]) -> Dict["Unit", int]:
        simplified = {
            unit: exponent
            for unit, exponent in factors.items()
            if unit is not One and exponent != 0
        }
        return simplified or {One: 1}

    @lru_cache(maxsize=None)
    def quantify(self) -> "Quantity":
        """Produce a Quantity of this Unit, including the Prefix.

        Examples:

            >>> from measured.si import Kilo, Meter
            >>> assert Kilo * Meter != 1000 * Meter
            >>> assert 1 * Kilo * Meter == 1000 * Meter
            >>> assert (Kilo * Meter).quantify() == 1000 * Meter
        """
        return self.prefix.quantify() * Unit(
            IdentityPrefix, self.factors, self.dimension
        )

    def __add__(self, other: "Unit") -> "Unit":
        if self is not other:
            return NotImplemented

        return self

    def __sub__(self, other: "Unit") -> "Unit":
        if self is not other:
            return NotImplemented

        return self

    @staticmethod
    @lru_cache(maxsize=None)
    def _multiply(self: "Unit", other: "Unit") -> "Unit":
        dimension = self.dimension * other.dimension
        prefix = self.prefix * other.prefix

        factors: Dict["Unit", int] = defaultdict(int, self.factors)
        for unit, exponent in other.factors.items():
            factors[unit] += exponent
        factors = self._simplify(factors)

        return Unit(prefix, factors, dimension)

    @overload
    def __mul__(self, other: "Unit") -> "Unit":
        ...  # pragma: no cover

    @overload
    def __mul__(self, other: Numeric) -> "Quantity":
        ...  # pragma: no cover

    def __mul__(self, other: Union["Unit", Numeric]) -> Union["Unit", "Quantity"]:
        if isinstance(other, NUMERIC_CLASSES):
            return Quantity(other, self)

        if not isinstance(other, Unit):
            return NotImplemented

        return Unit._multiply(self, other)

    __rmul__ = __mul__

    @staticmethod
    @lru_cache(maxsize=None)
    def _divide(self: "Unit", other: "Unit") -> "Unit":
        dimension = self.dimension / other.dimension
        prefix = self.prefix / other.prefix

        factors: Dict["Unit", int] = defaultdict(int, self.factors)
        for unit, exponent in other.factors.items():
            factors[unit] -= exponent
        factors = self._simplify(factors)

        return Unit(prefix, factors, dimension)

    def __truediv__(self, other: "Unit") -> "Unit":
        if not isinstance(other, Unit):
            return NotImplemented

        return Unit._divide(self, other)

    def __pow__(self, power: int) -> "Unit":
        if not isinstance(power, int):
            return NotImplemented

        dimension = self.dimension**power
        prefix = self.prefix**power

        factors = self._simplify(
            {unit: exponent * power for unit, exponent in self.factors.items()}
        )
        return Unit(prefix, factors, dimension)

    def root(self, degree: int) -> "Unit":
        """Returns the nth root of this Unit"""
        if not isinstance(degree, int):
            raise TypeError(f"degree should be an integer, not {type(degree)}")

        if degree == 0:
            return One

        dimension = self.dimension.root(degree)
        prefix = self.prefix.root(degree)

        if any(
            exponent // degree != exponent / degree
            for unit, exponent in self.factors.items()
            if exponent > 0 and unit is not One
        ):
            raise FractionalDimensionError(degree, self)

        factors = self._simplify(
            {unit: int(exponent // degree) for unit, exponent in self.factors.items()}
        )
        return Unit(prefix, factors, dimension)

    @lru_cache(maxsize=None)
    def as_ratio(self) -> Tuple["Unit", "Unit"]:
        """Returns this unit, split into a numerator and denominator"""
        numerator, denominator = self.dimension.as_ratio()
        return (
            Unit(
                self.prefix,
                {u: e for u, e in self.factors.items() if e >= 0} or {One: 1},
                numerator,
            ),
            Unit(
                IdentityPrefix,
                {u: -e for u, e in self.factors.items() if e < 0} or {One: 1},
                denominator,
            ),
        )

alias(name: Optional[str] = None, symbol: Optional[str] = None) -> None

Adds an alternative name and/or symbol to the unit

Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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def alias(self, name: Optional[str] = None, symbol: Optional[str] = None) -> None:
    """Adds an alternative name and/or symbol to the unit"""
    if name:
        if name in self._by_name and self._by_name[name] is not self:
            raise ValueError(f"A unit named {name} is already defined")

        self.names = self.names + (name,)
        self._by_name[name] = self

    if symbol:
        if symbol in self._by_symbol and self._by_symbol[symbol] is not self:
            raise ValueError(f"A unit with symbol {symbol} is already defined")

        if symbol and " " in symbol:
            raise ValueError(f"{symbol!r} will not be parsable if it has spaces.")

        self.symbols = self.symbols + (symbol,)
        self._by_symbol[symbol] = self

as_ratio() -> Tuple[Unit, Unit] cached

Returns this unit, split into a numerator and denominator

Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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@lru_cache(maxsize=None)
def as_ratio(self) -> Tuple["Unit", "Unit"]:
    """Returns this unit, split into a numerator and denominator"""
    numerator, denominator = self.dimension.as_ratio()
    return (
        Unit(
            self.prefix,
            {u: e for u, e in self.factors.items() if e >= 0} or {One: 1},
            numerator,
        ),
        Unit(
            IdentityPrefix,
            {u: -e for u, e in self.factors.items() if e < 0} or {One: 1},
            denominator,
        ),
    )

define(dimension: Dimension, name: str, symbol: str) -> Unit classmethod

Defines a new base unit

Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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@classmethod
def define(cls, dimension: Dimension, name: str, symbol: str) -> "Unit":
    """Defines a new base unit"""
    if name in cls._by_name:
        raise ValueError(f"A unit named {name} is already defined")

    if symbol in cls._by_symbol:
        raise ValueError(f"A unit with symbol {symbol} is already defined")

    unit = cls(IdentityPrefix, {}, dimension, name, symbol)
    cls._base.add(unit)
    return unit

derive(unit: Unit, name: str, symbol: str) -> Unit classmethod

Registers a new named unit derived from other units

Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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@classmethod
def derive(cls, unit: "Unit", name: str, symbol: str) -> "Unit":
    """Registers a new named unit derived from other units"""
    unit.alias(name=name, symbol=symbol)
    return unit

equals(other: Quantity) -> None

Defines a conversion between this Unit and another

Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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def equals(self, other: "Quantity") -> None:
    """Defines a conversion between this Unit and another"""
    if other.unit == self and self is not One:
        raise ValueError("No need to define conversions for a unit and itself")
    conversions.equate(1 * self, other)

named(name: str) -> Unit classmethod

Returns the unit with the given name

Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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@classmethod
def named(cls, name: str) -> "Unit":
    """Returns the unit with the given name"""
    return cls._by_name[name]

parse(string: str) -> Unit classmethod

Parses a unit from a string.

Examples:

It is important to import any modules of units you will be parsing.  Units
and their symbols are registered when they are first imported and created.

>>> from measured import Unit, si

Integer and floating point quantities can be parsed, along with units of
any complexity.

>>> meter_per_second = Unit.parse('m/s')
>>> meter_per_second.dimension is Speed
True
>>> amperes_cubed_per_area = Unit.parse('A³/m²')
>>> from measured.si import Meter, Ampere
>>> amperes_cubed_per_area is Ampere**3/Meter**2
True
>>> str(amperes_cubed_per_area)
'C³⋅s⁻³⋅m⁻²'

Measured can parse any unit in the same format it produces with `str`, but
also understands easier-to-type versions:

>>> assert Unit.parse('m^2/s') == Unit.parse('m²⋅s⁻¹')
>>> assert Unit.parse('m^2*s') == Unit.parse('m²⋅s')
Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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@classmethod
def parse(cls, string: str) -> "Unit":
    """
    Parses a unit from a string.

    Examples:

        It is important to import any modules of units you will be parsing.  Units
        and their symbols are registered when they are first imported and created.

        >>> from measured import Unit, si

        Integer and floating point quantities can be parsed, along with units of
        any complexity.

        >>> meter_per_second = Unit.parse('m/s')
        >>> meter_per_second.dimension is Speed
        True
        >>> amperes_cubed_per_area = Unit.parse('A³/m²')
        >>> from measured.si import Meter, Ampere
        >>> amperes_cubed_per_area is Ampere**3/Meter**2
        True
        >>> str(amperes_cubed_per_area)
        'C³⋅s⁻³⋅m⁻²'

        Measured can parse any unit in the same format it produces with `str`, but
        also understands easier-to-type versions:

        >>> assert Unit.parse('m^2/s') == Unit.parse('m²⋅s⁻¹')
        >>> assert Unit.parse('m^2*s') == Unit.parse('m²⋅s')
    """
    return cast(Unit, parser.parse(string, start="unit"))

quantify() -> Quantity cached

Produce a Quantity of this Unit, including the Prefix.

Examples:

>>> from measured.si import Kilo, Meter
>>> assert Kilo * Meter != 1000 * Meter
>>> assert 1 * Kilo * Meter == 1000 * Meter
>>> assert (Kilo * Meter).quantify() == 1000 * Meter
Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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@lru_cache(maxsize=None)
def quantify(self) -> "Quantity":
    """Produce a Quantity of this Unit, including the Prefix.

    Examples:

        >>> from measured.si import Kilo, Meter
        >>> assert Kilo * Meter != 1000 * Meter
        >>> assert 1 * Kilo * Meter == 1000 * Meter
        >>> assert (Kilo * Meter).quantify() == 1000 * Meter
    """
    return self.prefix.quantify() * Unit(
        IdentityPrefix, self.factors, self.dimension
    )

resolve_symbol(symbol: str) -> Unit classmethod

Returns the unit with the given (possibly prefixed) symbol

Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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@classmethod
def resolve_symbol(cls, symbol: str) -> "Unit":
    """Returns the unit with the given (possibly prefixed) symbol"""
    if symbol in cls._by_symbol:
        return cls._by_symbol[symbol]

    for i in range(1, len(symbol)):
        try:
            prefix = Prefix.resolve_symbol(symbol[:i])
            unit = cls._by_symbol[symbol[i:]]
        except KeyError:
            continue

        return prefix * unit

    if symbol in cls._by_name:
        return cls._by_name[symbol]

    raise KeyError(f"No unit (or prefixed unit) matching {symbol!r}")

root(degree: int) -> Unit

Returns the nth root of this Unit

Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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def root(self, degree: int) -> "Unit":
    """Returns the nth root of this Unit"""
    if not isinstance(degree, int):
        raise TypeError(f"degree should be an integer, not {type(degree)}")

    if degree == 0:
        return One

    dimension = self.dimension.root(degree)
    prefix = self.prefix.root(degree)

    if any(
        exponent // degree != exponent / degree
        for unit, exponent in self.factors.items()
        if exponent > 0 and unit is not One
    ):
        raise FractionalDimensionError(degree, self)

    factors = self._simplify(
        {unit: int(exponent // degree) for unit, exponent in self.factors.items()}
    )
    return Unit(prefix, factors, dimension)

measured.Prefix

Prefixes scale a Unit up or down by a constant factor.

Prefixes are defined in systems of factors with a common integer base, and successive positive and/or negative exponents, like the SI system of prefixes using base 10 (micro, milli, kilo, mega, etc) or the IEC system of binary prefixes (kibi, mebi, gibi, etc).

Attributes:

base (int): The base of the system, like `10` for the SI system
exponent (int | float): The exponent that the base is raised to

Examples:

Prefixes have a base and an exponent:

>>> from measured.si import Milli, Kilo
>>> Milli.symbol, Milli.base, Milli.exponent
('m', 10, -3)
>>> Kilo.symbol, Kilo.base, Kilo.exponent
('k', 10, 3)

Prefixes can be multiplied by numbers, Prefixes, and Units:

>>> from measured.si import Kilo, Mega, Meter
>>> assert 1 * Kilo * Meter == 1000 * Meter
>>> assert 1 * (Kilo * Kilo * Meter) == 1 * Mega * Meter

Prefixes can be divided by Prefixes and other prefixed units:

>>> from measured.si import Kilo, Mega, Meter, Second
>>> assert (1 * Mega * Meter) / (1 * Kilo * Second) == 1000 * Meter / Second

Prefixes can be raised to an exponent:

>>> from measured.si import Kilo, Mega, Meter
>>> assert (2 * Kilo * Meter)**2 == 4 * Mega * Meter**2

Prefixes can translate between bases, although be careful with the loss of
precision during this conversion:

>>> from measured.si import Kilo
>>> from measured.iec import Mebi, Bit
>>> assert 1 * Mebi * Bit == 1048.576 * Kilo * Bit
Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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class Prefix:
    """Prefixes scale a [`Unit`][measured.Unit] up or down by a constant factor.

    Prefixes are defined in systems of factors with a common integer base, and
    successive positive and/or negative exponents, like the SI system of prefixes using
    base 10 (micro, milli, kilo, mega, etc) or the IEC system of binary prefixes (kibi,
    mebi, gibi, etc).

    Attributes:

        base (int): The base of the system, like `10` for the SI system
        exponent (int | float): The exponent that the base is raised to

    Examples:

        Prefixes have a base and an exponent:

        >>> from measured.si import Milli, Kilo
        >>> Milli.symbol, Milli.base, Milli.exponent
        ('m', 10, -3)
        >>> Kilo.symbol, Kilo.base, Kilo.exponent
        ('k', 10, 3)

        Prefixes can be multiplied by numbers, Prefixes, and Units:

        >>> from measured.si import Kilo, Mega, Meter
        >>> assert 1 * Kilo * Meter == 1000 * Meter
        >>> assert 1 * (Kilo * Kilo * Meter) == 1 * Mega * Meter

        Prefixes can be divided by Prefixes and other prefixed units:

        >>> from measured.si import Kilo, Mega, Meter, Second
        >>> assert (1 * Mega * Meter) / (1 * Kilo * Second) == 1000 * Meter / Second

        Prefixes can be raised to an exponent:

        >>> from measured.si import Kilo, Mega, Meter
        >>> assert (2 * Kilo * Meter)**2 == 4 * Mega * Meter**2

        Prefixes can translate between bases, although be careful with the loss of
        precision during this conversion:

        >>> from measured.si import Kilo
        >>> from measured.iec import Mebi, Bit
        >>> assert 1 * Mebi * Bit == 1048.576 * Kilo * Bit

    """

    _known: ClassVar[Dict[Tuple[int, Numeric], "Prefix"]] = {}
    _initialized: bool

    _by_name: ClassVar[Dict[str, "Prefix"]] = {}
    _by_symbol: ClassVar[Dict[str, "Prefix"]] = {}

    __slots__ = ("_initialized", "base", "exponent", "name", "symbol")

    base: int
    exponent: Numeric
    name: Optional[str]
    symbol: Optional[str]

    def __new__(
        cls,
        base: int,
        exponent: Numeric,
        name: Optional[str] = None,
        symbol: Optional[str] = None,
    ) -> "Prefix":
        if base != 0 and exponent == 0:
            return IdentityPrefix

        key = (base, exponent)
        if key in cls._known:
            return cls._known[key]

        self = super().__new__(cls)
        self._initialized = False
        cls._known[key] = self
        return self

    def __init__(
        self,
        base: int,
        exponent: Numeric,
        name: Optional[str] = None,
        symbol: Optional[str] = None,
    ) -> None:
        if self._initialized:
            return

        self.base = base
        self.exponent = exponent
        self.name = name
        self.symbol = symbol
        self._initialized = True

        if name:
            self._by_name[name] = self
        if symbol:
            self._by_symbol[symbol] = self

    @classmethod
    def resolve_symbol(cls, symbol: str) -> "Prefix":
        """Returns the Prefix with the given symbol"""
        return cls._by_symbol[symbol]

    # Pickle support

    def __getnewargs_ex__(self) -> Tuple[Tuple[int, Numeric], Dict[str, Any]]:
        return (self.base, self.exponent), {}

    # JSON support

    def __json__(self) -> Dict[str, Any]:
        return {
            "__measured__": "Prefix",
            "base": self.base,
            "exponent": self.exponent,
            "name": self.name,
            "symbol": self.symbol,
        }

    @classmethod
    def __from_json__(cls, json_object: Dict[str, Any]) -> "Prefix":
        return Prefix(json_object["base"], json_object["exponent"])

    # Pydantic support

    @classmethod
    def __get_pydantic_core_schema__(
        cls, source: Type[Any], handler: "GetCoreSchemaHandler"
    ) -> "core_schema.CoreSchema":
        from pydantic_core import core_schema

        return core_schema.no_info_plain_validator_function(
            cls._pydantic_validate,
            serialization=core_schema.plain_serializer_function_ser_schema(
                cls.__json__, when_used="json-unless-none"
            ),
        )

    @classmethod
    def _pydantic_validate(
        cls, value: Union[str, Dict[str, Any], "Prefix"]
    ) -> "Prefix":
        if isinstance(value, dict):
            return cls.__from_json__(value)

        if isinstance(value, str):
            if value not in cls._by_name:
                raise ValueError(f"{value!r} is not a named Prefix")

            return cls._by_name[value]

        if isinstance(value, Prefix):
            return value

        raise ValueError(f"No conversion from {value!r} to Prefix")

    __repr__ = formatting.prefix_repr
    __str__ = formatting.prefix_str
    _repr_pretty_ = formatting.prefix_pretty
    _repr_html_ = formatting.mathml(formatting.prefix_mathml)

    def quantify(self) -> Numeric:
        return cast(Numeric, self.base**self.exponent)

    @overload
    def __mul__(self, other: "Prefix") -> "Prefix":
        ...  # pragma: no cover

    @overload
    def __mul__(self, other: "Unit") -> "Unit":
        ...  # pragma: no cover

    @overload
    def __mul__(self, other: Numeric) -> "Quantity":
        ...  # pragma: no cover

    def __mul__(
        self, other: Union["Prefix", "Unit", Numeric]
    ) -> Union["Prefix", "Unit", "Quantity"]:
        if isinstance(other, Prefix):
            if other.base == 0:
                return self
            elif self.base == 0:
                return other
            elif other.base == self.base:
                return Prefix(self.base, _add(self.exponent, other.exponent))

            base, exponent = self.base, self.exponent
            base_change = _mul(
                other.exponent, (math.log(other.base) / math.log(self.base))
            )

            return Prefix(base, _add(exponent, base_change))

        if isinstance(other, Unit):
            return Unit(other.prefix * self, other.factors, other.dimension)

        if isinstance(other, NUMERIC_CLASSES):
            return (other * One) * self.quantify()

        return NotImplemented

    __rmul__ = __mul__

    def __truediv__(self, other: "Prefix") -> "Prefix":
        if not isinstance(other, Prefix):
            return NotImplemented

        if other.base == 0:
            return self
        elif self.base == 0:
            return Prefix(other.base, -other.exponent)
        elif other.base == self.base:
            return Prefix(self.base, _sub(self.exponent, other.exponent))

        base, exponent = self.base, self.exponent
        base_change = _mul(other.exponent, (math.log(other.base) / math.log(self.base)))

        return Prefix(base, _sub(exponent, base_change))

    def __pow__(self, power: int) -> "Prefix":
        return Prefix(self.base, self.exponent * power)

    def root(self, degree: int) -> "Prefix":
        """Returns the nth root of this Prefix"""
        if not isinstance(degree, int):
            raise TypeError(f"degree should be an integer, not {type(degree)}")

        if degree == 0:
            return IdentityPrefix

        if self.exponent // degree != self.exponent / degree:
            raise FractionalDimensionError(degree, self)

        return Prefix(self.base, int(self.exponent // degree))

resolve_symbol(symbol: str) -> Prefix classmethod

Returns the Prefix with the given symbol

Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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@classmethod
def resolve_symbol(cls, symbol: str) -> "Prefix":
    """Returns the Prefix with the given symbol"""
    return cls._by_symbol[symbol]

root(degree: int) -> Prefix

Returns the nth root of this Prefix

Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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def root(self, degree: int) -> "Prefix":
    """Returns the nth root of this Prefix"""
    if not isinstance(degree, int):
        raise TypeError(f"degree should be an integer, not {type(degree)}")

    if degree == 0:
        return IdentityPrefix

    if self.exponent // degree != self.exponent / degree:
        raise FractionalDimensionError(degree, self)

    return Prefix(self.base, int(self.exponent // degree))

measured.Quantity

Quantity represents a quantity of some Unit

Attributes:

magnitude (int | float): the quantity

unit (Unit): the [`Unit`][measured.Unit]

Examples:

All of the arithmetic operations are supported between Quantities.
Multiplication and division with [`Unit`][measured.Unit], `int`, and `float`
are also supported.

>>> from measured.si import Meter, Second
>>> assert 2 * Meter + 3 * Meter == 5 * Meter
>>> assert 3 * Meter - 1 * Meter == 2 * Meter
>>> assert (2 * Meter) / (1 * Second) == 2 * Meter / Second
>>> assert 10 * Meter / 2 == 5 * Meter
>>> assert 10 * Meter * 2 == 20 * Meter
>>> assert (10 * Meter)**2 == 100 * Meter**2

Keep an eye on Python's operator precedence, which may lead to surprising
results.  Consider the following:

>>> assert (2 * Meter / 1 * Second) != (2 * Meter) / (1 * Second)

In the above example, the order of operations on the left is:

* `2 * Meter` → `Quantity(2, Meter)`
* `Quantity(2, Meter) / 1` → `Quantity(2, Meter)`
* `Quantity(2, Meter) * Second` → `Quantity(2, Meter * Second)`

But on the right, the order is:

* `2 * Meter` → `Quantity(2, Meter)`
* `1 * Second` → `Quantity(1, Second)`
* `Quantity(2, Meter) / Quantity(1, Second)` → `Quantity(2, Meter / Second)`

[`Quantity`][measured.Quantity] values define format specifiers to control how
they are formatted as strings:

>>> from measured.si import Meter, Second
>>> str(5 * Meter / Second)
'5 m⋅s⁻¹'
>>> f"{5 * Meter / Second}"
'5 m⋅s⁻¹'
>>> f"{5 * Meter**2 / Second**2}"
'5 m²⋅s⁻²'

When formatting a [`Quantity`][measured.Quantity], you can specify two separate
format specifiers, separated by a `:`.  The first specifier is used to format
the `magnitude`, and the second is used to format the `unit` (see
[`Unit`][measured.Unit] for more information about the available specifiers).

Specifying both the magnitude and unit format:

>>> f"{5.1234 * Meter / Second:.2f:/}"
'5.12 m/s'

Specifying only the magnitude's format:

>>> f"{5.1234 * Meter / Second:.2f}"
'5.12 m⋅s⁻¹'

Specifying only the unit's format:

>>> f"{5.1234 * Meter / Second::/}"
'5.1234 m/s'
Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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@total_ordering
class Quantity:
    """Quantity represents a quantity of some Unit

    Attributes:

        magnitude (int | float): the quantity

        unit (Unit): the [`Unit`][measured.Unit]

    Examples:

        All of the arithmetic operations are supported between Quantities.
        Multiplication and division with [`Unit`][measured.Unit], `int`, and `float`
        are also supported.

        >>> from measured.si import Meter, Second
        >>> assert 2 * Meter + 3 * Meter == 5 * Meter
        >>> assert 3 * Meter - 1 * Meter == 2 * Meter
        >>> assert (2 * Meter) / (1 * Second) == 2 * Meter / Second
        >>> assert 10 * Meter / 2 == 5 * Meter
        >>> assert 10 * Meter * 2 == 20 * Meter
        >>> assert (10 * Meter)**2 == 100 * Meter**2

        Keep an eye on Python's operator precedence, which may lead to surprising
        results.  Consider the following:

        >>> assert (2 * Meter / 1 * Second) != (2 * Meter) / (1 * Second)

        In the above example, the order of operations on the left is:

        * `2 * Meter` → `Quantity(2, Meter)`
        * `Quantity(2, Meter) / 1` → `Quantity(2, Meter)`
        * `Quantity(2, Meter) * Second` → `Quantity(2, Meter * Second)`

        But on the right, the order is:

        * `2 * Meter` → `Quantity(2, Meter)`
        * `1 * Second` → `Quantity(1, Second)`
        * `Quantity(2, Meter) / Quantity(1, Second)` → `Quantity(2, Meter / Second)`

        [`Quantity`][measured.Quantity] values define format specifiers to control how
        they are formatted as strings:

        >>> from measured.si import Meter, Second
        >>> str(5 * Meter / Second)
        '5 m⋅s⁻¹'
        >>> f"{5 * Meter / Second}"
        '5 m⋅s⁻¹'
        >>> f"{5 * Meter**2 / Second**2}"
        '5 m²⋅s⁻²'

        When formatting a [`Quantity`][measured.Quantity], you can specify two separate
        format specifiers, separated by a `:`.  The first specifier is used to format
        the `magnitude`, and the second is used to format the `unit` (see
        [`Unit`][measured.Unit] for more information about the available specifiers).

        Specifying both the magnitude and unit format:

        >>> f"{5.1234 * Meter / Second:.2f:/}"
        '5.12 m/s'

        Specifying only the magnitude's format:

        >>> f"{5.1234 * Meter / Second:.2f}"
        '5.12 m⋅s⁻¹'

        Specifying only the unit's format:

        >>> f"{5.1234 * Meter / Second::/}"
        '5.1234 m/s'

    """

    __slots__ = ("magnitude", "unit")

    magnitude: Numeric
    unit: Unit

    def __init__(self, magnitude: Numeric, unit: Union[Unit, str]):
        self.magnitude = magnitude
        if isinstance(unit, str):
            unit = Unit.parse(unit)
        self.unit = unit

    def unprefixed(self) -> "Quantity":
        """Reduces this Quantity into a new Quantity expressed only in base units
        without any Prefixes"""
        return self.magnitude * self.unit.quantify()

    def in_unit(self, other: Unit) -> "Quantity":
        """Convert this Quantity into another unit"""
        return conversions.convert(self, other)

    # JSON support

    def __json__(self) -> Dict[str, Any]:
        magnitude: Union[Numeric, str] = self.magnitude
        if isinstance(magnitude, Decimal):
            magnitude = str(magnitude)
        return {
            "__measured__": "Quantity",
            "magnitude": magnitude,
            "unit": str(self.unit),
        }

    @classmethod
    def __from_json__(cls, json_object: Dict[str, Any]) -> "Quantity":
        magnitude = json_object["magnitude"]
        if isinstance(magnitude, str):
            magnitude = Decimal(magnitude)
        return Quantity(magnitude, json_object["unit"])

    # Pydantic support

    @classmethod
    def __get_pydantic_core_schema__(
        cls, source: Type[Any], handler: "GetCoreSchemaHandler"
    ) -> "core_schema.CoreSchema":
        from pydantic_core import core_schema

        return core_schema.no_info_plain_validator_function(
            cls._pydantic_validate,
            serialization=core_schema.plain_serializer_function_ser_schema(
                cls.__json__, when_used="json-unless-none"
            ),
        )

    @classmethod
    def _pydantic_validate(
        cls, value: Union[str, Dict[str, Any], "Quantity"]
    ) -> "Quantity":
        if isinstance(value, dict):
            return cls.__from_json__(value)

        if isinstance(value, Quantity):
            return value

        raise ValueError(f"No conversion from {value!r} to Quantity")

    # SQLAlchemy support

    def __composite_values__(self) -> Tuple[Numeric, str]:
        """
        From the [SQLAlchemy documentation][1]:

            The requirements for the custom datatype class are that it have a
            constructor which accepts positional arguments corresponding to its column
            format, and also provides a method __composite_values__() which returns the
            state of the object as a list or tuple, in order of its column-based
            attributes. It also should supply adequate __eq__() and __ne__() methods
            which test the equality of two instances.

            [1]: https://docs.sqlalchemy.org/en/20/orm/composites.html
        """
        return self.magnitude, str(self.unit)

    __repr__ = formatting.quantity_repr
    __str__ = formatting.quantity_str
    __format__ = formatting.quantity_format
    _repr_pretty_ = formatting.quantity_pretty
    _repr_html_ = formatting.mathml(formatting.quantity_mathml)

    @classmethod
    def parse(cls, string: str) -> "Quantity":
        """
        Parses a quantity from a string.

        Examples:

            It is important to import any modules of units you will be parsing.  Units
            and their symbols are registered when they are first imported and created.

            >>> from measured import Quantity, si

            Integer and floating point quantities can be parsed, along with units of
            any complexity.

            >>> distance = Quantity.parse('5200 m')
            >>> speed = Quantity.parse('5.2e2 m/s')
            >>> time = distance / speed
            >>> str(time)
            '10.0 s'
            >>> amperes_cubed_per_area = Quantity.parse('2 A³/m²')
            >>> str(amperes_cubed_per_area)
            '2 C³⋅s⁻³⋅m⁻²'

            Measured can parse any unit in the same format it produces with `str`, but
            also understands easier-to-type versions:

            >>> assert Quantity.parse('2 m^2/s') == Quantity.parse('2 m²⋅s⁻¹')
            >>> assert Quantity.parse('2 m^2*s') == Quantity.parse('2 m²⋅s')
        """
        return cast(Quantity, parser.parse(string, start="quantity"))

    def __hash__(self) -> int:
        return hash((self.magnitude, self.unit))

    def __add__(self, other: "Quantity") -> "Quantity":
        if isinstance(other, Quantity):
            other = other.in_unit(self.unit)
            return Quantity(_add(self.magnitude, other.magnitude), self.unit)

        return NotImplemented

    def __sub__(self, other: "Quantity") -> "Quantity":
        if isinstance(other, Quantity):
            other = other.in_unit(self.unit)
            return Quantity(_sub(self.magnitude, other.magnitude), self.unit)

        return NotImplemented

    def __mul__(self, other: Union["Quantity", "Unit", Numeric]) -> "Quantity":
        if isinstance(other, Unit):
            return Quantity(self.magnitude, self.unit * other)

        if isinstance(other, Quantity):
            return Quantity(
                _mul(self.magnitude, other.magnitude), self.unit * other.unit
            )

        if isinstance(other, NUMERIC_CLASSES):
            return Quantity(_mul(self.magnitude, other), self.unit)

        return NotImplemented

    __rmul__ = __mul__

    def __truediv__(self, other: Union["Quantity", "Unit", Numeric]) -> "Quantity":
        if isinstance(other, Unit):
            return Quantity(self.magnitude, self.unit / other)

        if isinstance(other, Quantity):
            return Quantity(
                _div(self.magnitude, other.magnitude), self.unit / other.unit
            )

        if isinstance(other, NUMERIC_CLASSES):
            return Quantity(_div(self.magnitude, other), self.unit)

        return NotImplemented

    def __rtruediv__(self, other: Numeric) -> "Quantity":
        if isinstance(other, NUMERIC_CLASSES):
            return Quantity(_div(other, self.magnitude), self.unit)

        return NotImplemented

    def __pow__(self, power: int) -> "Quantity":
        return Quantity(self.magnitude**power, self.unit**power)

    def root(self, degree: int) -> "Quantity":
        """Returns the nth root of this Quantity"""
        if degree == 0:
            return 1 * One
        return Quantity(_pow(self.magnitude, (1 / degree)), self.unit.root(degree))

    def __neg__(self) -> "Quantity":
        return Quantity(-self.magnitude, self.unit)

    def __pos__(self) -> "Quantity":
        return Quantity(+self.magnitude, self.unit)

    def __abs__(self) -> "Quantity":
        absolute = abs(self.magnitude)
        assert isinstance(absolute, NUMERIC_CLASSES)
        return Quantity(absolute, self.unit)

    def __eq__(self, other: Any) -> bool:
        if isinstance(other, Level):
            other = other.quantify()

        if not isinstance(other, Quantity):
            return NotImplemented

        if self.unit.dimension != other.unit.dimension:
            return NotImplemented

        this = self.unprefixed()
        other = other.unprefixed()

        if this.unit == other.unit:
            return this.magnitude == other.magnitude

        try:
            return this.in_unit(other.unit) == other
        except conversions.ConversionNotFound:
            return NotImplemented

    def __lt__(self, other: Any) -> bool:
        if isinstance(other, Level):
            other = other.quantify()

        if not isinstance(other, Quantity):
            return NotImplemented

        if self.unit.dimension != other.unit.dimension:
            return NotImplemented

        this = self.unprefixed()
        other = other.unprefixed()

        if this.unit == other.unit:
            return this.magnitude < other.magnitude

        try:
            return this.in_unit(other.unit) < other
        except conversions.ConversionNotFound:
            return NotImplemented

    def level(self, unit: "LogarithmicUnit") -> "Level":
        return unit.level(self)

__composite_values__() -> Tuple[Numeric, str]

From the [SQLAlchemy documentation][1]:

The requirements for the custom datatype class are that it have a
constructor which accepts positional arguments corresponding to its column
format, and also provides a method __composite_values__() which returns the
state of the object as a list or tuple, in order of its column-based
attributes. It also should supply adequate __eq__() and __ne__() methods
which test the equality of two instances.

[1]: https://docs.sqlalchemy.org/en/20/orm/composites.html
Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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def __composite_values__(self) -> Tuple[Numeric, str]:
    """
    From the [SQLAlchemy documentation][1]:

        The requirements for the custom datatype class are that it have a
        constructor which accepts positional arguments corresponding to its column
        format, and also provides a method __composite_values__() which returns the
        state of the object as a list or tuple, in order of its column-based
        attributes. It also should supply adequate __eq__() and __ne__() methods
        which test the equality of two instances.

        [1]: https://docs.sqlalchemy.org/en/20/orm/composites.html
    """
    return self.magnitude, str(self.unit)

in_unit(other: Unit) -> Quantity

Convert this Quantity into another unit

Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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def in_unit(self, other: Unit) -> "Quantity":
    """Convert this Quantity into another unit"""
    return conversions.convert(self, other)

parse(string: str) -> Quantity classmethod

Parses a quantity from a string.

Examples:

It is important to import any modules of units you will be parsing.  Units
and their symbols are registered when they are first imported and created.

>>> from measured import Quantity, si

Integer and floating point quantities can be parsed, along with units of
any complexity.

>>> distance = Quantity.parse('5200 m')
>>> speed = Quantity.parse('5.2e2 m/s')
>>> time = distance / speed
>>> str(time)
'10.0 s'
>>> amperes_cubed_per_area = Quantity.parse('2 A³/m²')
>>> str(amperes_cubed_per_area)
'2 C³⋅s⁻³⋅m⁻²'

Measured can parse any unit in the same format it produces with `str`, but
also understands easier-to-type versions:

>>> assert Quantity.parse('2 m^2/s') == Quantity.parse('2 m²⋅s⁻¹')
>>> assert Quantity.parse('2 m^2*s') == Quantity.parse('2 m²⋅s')
Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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@classmethod
def parse(cls, string: str) -> "Quantity":
    """
    Parses a quantity from a string.

    Examples:

        It is important to import any modules of units you will be parsing.  Units
        and their symbols are registered when they are first imported and created.

        >>> from measured import Quantity, si

        Integer and floating point quantities can be parsed, along with units of
        any complexity.

        >>> distance = Quantity.parse('5200 m')
        >>> speed = Quantity.parse('5.2e2 m/s')
        >>> time = distance / speed
        >>> str(time)
        '10.0 s'
        >>> amperes_cubed_per_area = Quantity.parse('2 A³/m²')
        >>> str(amperes_cubed_per_area)
        '2 C³⋅s⁻³⋅m⁻²'

        Measured can parse any unit in the same format it produces with `str`, but
        also understands easier-to-type versions:

        >>> assert Quantity.parse('2 m^2/s') == Quantity.parse('2 m²⋅s⁻¹')
        >>> assert Quantity.parse('2 m^2*s') == Quantity.parse('2 m²⋅s')
    """
    return cast(Quantity, parser.parse(string, start="quantity"))

root(degree: int) -> Quantity

Returns the nth root of this Quantity

Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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def root(self, degree: int) -> "Quantity":
    """Returns the nth root of this Quantity"""
    if degree == 0:
        return 1 * One
    return Quantity(_pow(self.magnitude, (1 / degree)), self.unit.root(degree))

unprefixed() -> Quantity

Reduces this Quantity into a new Quantity expressed only in base units without any Prefixes

Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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def unprefixed(self) -> "Quantity":
    """Reduces this Quantity into a new Quantity expressed only in base units
    without any Prefixes"""
    return self.magnitude * self.unit.quantify()

measured.Logarithm

A Logarithm forms a family of LogarithmicUnits, which measures the ratio of a measured Quantity to a reference Quantity on a logarithmic scale. Commonly used logarithms include the Decibel (base 10) and the Neper (base e)

The logarithm is not a unit itself, but rather a family of units, each with a specific reference Quantity. For example, the unit dBW, commonly used in electrical and communications applications, measures the ratio of a Power quantity against the reference value 1 Watt, in increments of 10 (the base) to the 1/10th power (the deci- prefix).

Examples:

Use a `Logarithm`, like `Decibel`, to _create_ a new
[`LogarithmicUnit`][measured.LogarithmicUnit] based on a reference value.  In
the example below, the reference value is 1 Watt:

>>> from measured import Decibel
>>> from measured.si import Watt
>>> dBW = Decibel[1 * Watt]

The `dBW` unit may now be used to produces [`Levels`][measured.Level] that may
be used in operations with Quantities of the same dimension (`Power`, in this
case):

>>> assert 100 * Watt == 20 * dBW
Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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class Logarithm:
    """A `Logarithm` forms a family of [`LogarithmicUnits`][measured.LogarithmicUnit],
    which measures the _ratio_ of a measured [`Quantity`][measured.Quantity] to a
    reference [`Quantity`][measured.Quantity] on a logarithmic scale.  Commonly used
    logarithms include the `Decibel` (base 10) and the `Neper` (base _e_)

    The logarithm is not a unit itself, but rather a family of units, each with a
    specific reference [`Quantity`][measured.Quantity].  For example, the unit `dBW`,
    commonly used in electrical and communications applications, measures the ratio of a
    `Power` quantity against the reference value 1 Watt, in increments of 10 (the base)
    to the 1/10th power (the deci- prefix).

    Examples:

        Use a `Logarithm`, like `Decibel`, to _create_ a new
        [`LogarithmicUnit`][measured.LogarithmicUnit] based on a reference value.  In
        the example below, the reference value is 1 Watt:

        >>> from measured import Decibel
        >>> from measured.si import Watt
        >>> dBW = Decibel[1 * Watt]

        The `dBW` unit may now be used to produces [`Levels`][measured.Level] that may
        be used in operations with Quantities of the same dimension (`Power`, in this
        case):

        >>> assert 100 * Watt == 20 * dBW
    """

    _known: ClassVar[Dict[Tuple[float, Prefix], "Logarithm"]] = {}
    _initialized: bool

    base: float
    prefix: Prefix
    name: Optional[str]
    symbol: Optional[str]

    def __new__(
        cls,
        base: float,
        prefix: Prefix = Prefix(0, 0),
        name: Optional[str] = None,
        symbol: Optional[str] = None,
    ) -> "Logarithm":
        key = (base, prefix)
        if key in cls._known:
            return cls._known[key]

        self = super().__new__(cls)
        self._initialized = False
        cls._known[key] = self
        return self

    def __init__(
        self,
        base: float,
        prefix: Prefix = Prefix(0, 0),
        name: Optional[str] = None,
        symbol: Optional[str] = None,
    ) -> None:
        if self._initialized:
            return

        self.base = base
        self.prefix = prefix
        self.name = name
        self.symbol = symbol
        self._initialized = True

    def alias(self, name: str, symbol: str) -> "Logarithm":
        """Gives a name and symbol to this Logarithm"""
        self.name = name
        self.symbol = symbol
        return self

    __repr__ = formatting.logarithm_repr
    __str__ = formatting.logarithm_str
    _repr_pretty_ = formatting.logarithm_pretty
    _repr_html_ = formatting.mathml(formatting.logarithm_mathml)

    def __mul__(self, other: Prefix) -> "Logarithm":
        if isinstance(other, Prefix):
            return Logarithm(self.base, prefix=self.prefix * other)

        return NotImplemented

    __rmul__ = __mul__

    def __getitem__(self, reference: Quantity) -> "LogarithmicUnit":
        return LogarithmicUnit(self, reference)

alias(name: str, symbol: str) -> Logarithm

Gives a name and symbol to this Logarithm

Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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def alias(self, name: str, symbol: str) -> "Logarithm":
    """Gives a name and symbol to this Logarithm"""
    self.name = name
    self.symbol = symbol
    return self

measured.LogarithmicUnit

A LogarithmicUnit represents a ratio of a measured Quantity to a reference Quantity on a logarithmic scale.

Examples:

You may construct a `LogarithmicUnit` by applying the reference quantity as a
"suffix" (using Python's indexing operator `[]`) to the
[`Logarithm`][measured.Logarithm] in question:

>>> from measured import Decibel
>>> from measured.si import Watt, Milli
>>> dBW = Decibel[1 * Watt]
>>> dBm = Decibel[1 * Milli * Watt]
>>> assert dBm is not dBW

`LogarithmicUnits` create [`Levels`][measured.Level] through multiplication:

>>> level = 20 * dBW

A [`Level`][measured.Level] is analogous to a [`Quantity`][measured.Quantity]:

>>> level.magnitude
20
>>> level.unit is dBW
True
>>> 100 * Watt == level
True
Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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class LogarithmicUnit:
    """A `LogarithmicUnit` represents a _ratio_ of a measured
    [`Quantity`][measured.Quantity] to a reference [`Quantity`][measured.Quantity] on a
    logarithmic scale.

    Examples:

        You may construct a `LogarithmicUnit` by applying the reference quantity as a
        "suffix" (using Python's indexing operator `[]`) to the
        [`Logarithm`][measured.Logarithm] in question:

        >>> from measured import Decibel
        >>> from measured.si import Watt, Milli
        >>> dBW = Decibel[1 * Watt]
        >>> dBm = Decibel[1 * Milli * Watt]
        >>> assert dBm is not dBW

        `LogarithmicUnits` create [`Levels`][measured.Level] through multiplication:

        >>> level = 20 * dBW

        A [`Level`][measured.Level] is analogous to a [`Quantity`][measured.Quantity]:

        >>> level.magnitude
        20
        >>> level.unit is dBW
        True
        >>> 100 * Watt == level
        True
    """

    _known: ClassVar[Dict[Tuple[Logarithm, Quantity], "LogarithmicUnit"]] = {}
    _initialized: bool

    logarithm: Logarithm
    reference: Quantity
    name: Optional[str]
    symbol: Optional[str]

    def __new__(
        cls,
        logarithm: Logarithm,
        reference: Quantity,
        name: Optional[str] = None,
        symbol: Optional[str] = None,
    ) -> "LogarithmicUnit":
        key = (logarithm, reference)
        if key in cls._known:
            return cls._known[key]

        self = super().__new__(cls)
        self._initialized = False
        cls._known[key] = self
        return self

    def __init__(
        self,
        logarithm: Logarithm,
        reference: Quantity,
        name: Optional[str] = None,
        symbol: Optional[str] = None,
    ) -> None:
        if self._initialized:
            return

        self.logarithm = logarithm
        self.reference = reference.unprefixed()
        self.name = name
        self.symbol = symbol
        self._initialized = True

    def alias(self, name: str, symbol: str) -> "LogarithmicUnit":
        """Gives a name and symbol to this LogarithmicUnit"""
        assert not self.name and not self.symbol
        self.name = name
        self.symbol = symbol
        return self

    @property
    def power_ratio(self) -> int:
        """Indicates whether the reference quantity is a power (1) or root-power (2)
        quantity"""
        if self.reference.unit.dimension in ROOT_POWER_DIMENSIONS:
            return 2
        return 1

    __repr__ = formatting.logarithmic_unit_repr
    __str__ = formatting.logarithmic_unit_str
    _repr_pretty_ = formatting.logarithmic_unit_pretty
    _repr_html_ = formatting.mathml(formatting.logarithmic_unit_mathml)

    def __mul__(self, magnitude: Numeric) -> "Level":
        return Level(magnitude, self)

    __rmul__ = __mul__

    def level(self, quantity: Quantity) -> "Level":
        base = self.logarithm.base
        prefix = self.logarithm.prefix
        power_ratio = self.power_ratio
        ratio = quantity.in_unit(self.reference.unit) / self.reference
        inverted = _mul(1 / prefix.quantify(), math.log(ratio.magnitude, base))
        magnitude = power_ratio * inverted
        return Level(magnitude, self)

power_ratio: int property

Indicates whether the reference quantity is a power (1) or root-power (2) quantity

alias(name: str, symbol: str) -> LogarithmicUnit

Gives a name and symbol to this LogarithmicUnit

Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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def alias(self, name: str, symbol: str) -> "LogarithmicUnit":
    """Gives a name and symbol to this LogarithmicUnit"""
    assert not self.name and not self.symbol
    self.name = name
    self.symbol = symbol
    return self

measured.Level

A Level is analogous to a Quantity, but represents a ratio of a quantity to a reference quantity. The reference quantity is captured by the LogarithmicUnit.

Attributes:

magnitude (int | float): the quantity

unit (LogarithmicUnit): the [`LogarithmicUnit`][measured.LogarithmicUnit]
Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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class Level:
    """A `Level` is analogous to a [`Quantity`][measured.Quantity], but represents a
    ratio of a quantity to a reference quantity.  The reference quantity is captured by
    the [`LogarithmicUnit`][measured.LogarithmicUnit].

    Attributes:

        magnitude (int | float): the quantity

        unit (LogarithmicUnit): the [`LogarithmicUnit`][measured.LogarithmicUnit]
    """

    magnitude: Numeric
    unit: LogarithmicUnit

    def __init__(self, magnitude: Numeric, unit: LogarithmicUnit) -> None:
        self.magnitude = magnitude
        self.unit = unit

    __repr__ = formatting.level_repr
    __str__ = formatting.level_str
    _repr_pretty_ = formatting.level_pretty
    _repr_html_ = formatting.mathml(formatting.level_mathml)

    def quantify(self) -> Quantity:
        """Converts this Level into a Quantity of the reference unit"""
        base = self.unit.logarithm.base
        prefix = self.unit.logarithm.prefix
        power_ratio = self.unit.power_ratio
        reference = self.unit.reference
        exponent = _mul(self.magnitude, prefix.quantify())
        magnitude = _pow(base, (exponent / power_ratio))
        return magnitude * reference

    def __add__(self, other: "Level") -> "Level":
        if isinstance(other, Level):
            if other.unit != self.unit:
                return NotImplemented

            base = self.unit.logarithm.base
            prefix = self.unit.logarithm.prefix
            power_ratio = self.unit.power_ratio

            left_exponent = _mul(self.magnitude, prefix.quantify())
            right_exponent = _mul(other.magnitude, prefix.quantify())

            left_magnitude = _pow(base, (left_exponent * power_ratio))
            right_magnitude = _pow(base, (right_exponent * power_ratio))

            magnitude = base * math.log(_add(left_magnitude, right_magnitude), base)

            return Level(magnitude, self.unit)

        return NotImplemented

    def __sub__(self, other: "Level") -> "Level":
        if isinstance(other, Level):
            if other.unit != self.unit:
                return NotImplemented

            base = self.unit.logarithm.base
            prefix = self.unit.logarithm.prefix
            power_ratio = self.unit.power_ratio

            left_exponent = _mul(self.magnitude, prefix.quantify())
            right_exponent = _mul(other.magnitude, prefix.quantify())

            left_magnitude = _pow(base, (left_exponent * power_ratio))
            right_magnitude = _pow(base, (right_exponent * power_ratio))

            magnitude = base * math.log(_sub(left_magnitude, right_magnitude), base)

            return Level(magnitude, self.unit)

        return NotImplemented

    def __mul__(self, other: Numeric) -> "Level":
        if isinstance(other, NUMERIC_CLASSES):
            return Level(_add(self.magnitude, other), self.unit)

        return NotImplemented

    def __truediv__(self, other: Numeric) -> "Level":
        if isinstance(other, NUMERIC_CLASSES):
            return Level(_sub(self.magnitude, other), self.unit)

        return NotImplemented

    def __eq__(self, other: object) -> bool:
        if isinstance(other, Level):
            return self.quantify() == other.quantify()

        if isinstance(other, Quantity):
            return self.quantify() == other

        return NotImplemented

quantify() -> Quantity

Converts this Level into a Quantity of the reference unit

Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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def quantify(self) -> Quantity:
    """Converts this Level into a Quantity of the reference unit"""
    base = self.unit.logarithm.base
    prefix = self.unit.logarithm.prefix
    power_ratio = self.unit.power_ratio
    reference = self.unit.reference
    exponent = _mul(self.magnitude, prefix.quantify())
    magnitude = _pow(base, (exponent / power_ratio))
    return magnitude * reference

measured.Measurement

Measurement represents an uncertain measurement of some Quantity, and will propagate that uncertainty through arithmetic operations with Quantities and other Measurements.

Attributes:

measurand (Quantity): the measured value

uncertainty (Quantity | Numeric): the uncertainty of the measurement

Examples:

All of the arithmetic operations are supported with Quantities and Measurements:

>>> from measured import Measurement
>>> from measured.si import Meter, Second
>>> length = Measurement(2 * Meter, uncertainty=0.1)
>>> width = Measurement(3 * Meter, uncertainty=0.2)
>>> depth = 4 * Meter

The uncertainty of the measurements propagate through arithmetic operations
assuming that they are Gaussian, normally-distributed errors.

>>> area = length * width
>>> assert isinstance(area, Measurement)
>>> assert area.measurand == 6 * Meter**2
>>> assert area.uncertainty == 0.5 * Meter**2

Quantities are treated as if they have an uncertainty of 0:

>>> volume = area * depth
>>> assert isinstance(volume, Measurement)
>>> assert volume.measurand == 24 * Meter**3
>>> assert volume.uncertainty == 2.0 * Meter**3

When formatting a [`Measurement`][measured.Measurement], you can specify up to
three separate format specifiers, separated by a `:`.  The first specifier
controls how the uncertainty will be formatted.

>>> speed = Measurement(10.0 * Meter / Second, 0.1)

Uncertainties can be formatted as a ± interval using either the "±" or "+"
specifier (the default)

>>> f"{speed}"
'10.0±0.1 m⋅s⁻¹'

They can also be formatted as percentages using the "%" specifier:

>>> f"{speed:%}"
'10.0±1.00% m⋅s⁻¹'

In any of those cases, the significant digits of the uncertainty can also be
specified:

>>> f"{speed:%.4f}"
'10.0±1.0000% m⋅s⁻¹'
>>> f"{speed:±.4f}"
'10.0±0.1000 m⋅s⁻¹'
>>> f"{speed:+.4f}"
'10.0±0.1000 m⋅s⁻¹'

The second and third specifiers are used to format the measurand and follow the
same conventions as with [`Quantity`][measured.Quantity].

>>> f"{speed:%.4f:.3f:/}"
'10.000±1.0000% m/s'
Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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class Measurement:
    """Measurement represents an uncertain measurement of some Quantity, and will
    propagate that uncertainty through arithmetic operations with Quantities and other
    Measurements.

    Attributes:

        measurand (Quantity): the measured value

        uncertainty (Quantity | Numeric): the uncertainty of the measurement

    Examples:

        All of the arithmetic operations are supported with Quantities and Measurements:

        >>> from measured import Measurement
        >>> from measured.si import Meter, Second
        >>> length = Measurement(2 * Meter, uncertainty=0.1)
        >>> width = Measurement(3 * Meter, uncertainty=0.2)
        >>> depth = 4 * Meter

        The uncertainty of the measurements propagate through arithmetic operations
        assuming that they are Gaussian, normally-distributed errors.

        >>> area = length * width
        >>> assert isinstance(area, Measurement)
        >>> assert area.measurand == 6 * Meter**2
        >>> assert area.uncertainty == 0.5 * Meter**2

        Quantities are treated as if they have an uncertainty of 0:

        >>> volume = area * depth
        >>> assert isinstance(volume, Measurement)
        >>> assert volume.measurand == 24 * Meter**3
        >>> assert volume.uncertainty == 2.0 * Meter**3

        When formatting a [`Measurement`][measured.Measurement], you can specify up to
        three separate format specifiers, separated by a `:`.  The first specifier
        controls how the uncertainty will be formatted.

        >>> speed = Measurement(10.0 * Meter / Second, 0.1)

        Uncertainties can be formatted as a ± interval using either the "±" or "+"
        specifier (the default)

        >>> f"{speed}"
        '10.0±0.1 m⋅s⁻¹'

        They can also be formatted as percentages using the "%" specifier:

        >>> f"{speed:%}"
        '10.0±1.00% m⋅s⁻¹'

        In any of those cases, the significant digits of the uncertainty can also be
        specified:

        >>> f"{speed:%.4f}"
        '10.0±1.0000% m⋅s⁻¹'
        >>> f"{speed:±.4f}"
        '10.0±0.1000 m⋅s⁻¹'
        >>> f"{speed:+.4f}"
        '10.0±0.1000 m⋅s⁻¹'

        The second and third specifiers are used to format the measurand and follow the
        same conventions as with [`Quantity`][measured.Quantity].

        >>> f"{speed:%.4f:.3f:/}"
        '10.000±1.0000% m/s'
    """

    measurand: Quantity
    uncertainty: Quantity

    def __init__(
        self, measurand: Quantity, uncertainty: Union[Numeric, Quantity]
    ) -> None:
        self.measurand = measurand
        if not isinstance(uncertainty, Quantity):
            uncertainty = Quantity(uncertainty, measurand.unit)
        assert uncertainty.unit is measurand.unit
        self.uncertainty = abs(uncertainty)

    @property
    def uncertainty_ratio(self) -> float:
        """The uncertainty, expressed as a fraction of the magnitude of the measurand"""
        return float(self.uncertainty.magnitude) / float(self.measurand.magnitude)

    @property
    def uncertainty_percent(self) -> float:
        """The uncertainty, expressed as a percent of the magnitude of the measurand"""
        return float(self.uncertainty_ratio) * 100

    __repr__ = formatting.measurement_repr
    __str__ = formatting.measurement_str
    __format__ = formatting.measurement_format
    _repr_pretty_ = formatting.measurement_pretty
    _repr_html_ = formatting.mathml(formatting.measurement_mathml)

    def __eq__(self, other: object) -> bool:
        if isinstance(other, Quantity):
            other = Measurement(other, 0)
        if isinstance(other, Level):
            other = Measurement(other.quantify(), 0)

        if not isinstance(other, Measurement):
            return False

        if self.measurand.unit.dimension is not other.measurand.unit.dimension:
            return False

        self_lower = self.measurand - self.uncertainty
        other_lower = other.measurand - other.uncertainty
        self_upper = self.measurand + self.uncertainty
        other_upper = other.measurand + other.uncertainty

        try:
            overlaps_lower = self_lower <= other_lower <= self_upper
            overlaps_upper = self_lower <= other_upper <= self_upper
        except TypeError:
            return False

        return overlaps_lower or overlaps_upper

    def __lt__(self, other: object) -> bool:
        if isinstance(other, Quantity):
            other = Measurement(other, 0)
        if isinstance(other, Level):
            other = Measurement(other.quantify(), 0)

        if not isinstance(other, Measurement):
            return NotImplemented

        self_lower = self.measurand - self.uncertainty
        other_lower = other.measurand - other.uncertainty
        return self_lower < other_lower

    def __le__(self, other: object) -> bool:
        if isinstance(other, Quantity):
            other = Measurement(other, 0)
        if isinstance(other, Level):
            other = Measurement(other.quantify(), 0)

        if not isinstance(other, Measurement):
            return NotImplemented

        self_lower = self.measurand - self.uncertainty
        other_lower = other.measurand - other.uncertainty
        return self_lower <= other_lower

    def __gt__(self, other: object) -> bool:
        if isinstance(other, Quantity):
            other = Measurement(other, 0)
        if isinstance(other, Level):
            other = Measurement(other.quantify(), 0)

        if not isinstance(other, Measurement):
            return NotImplemented

        self_upper = self.measurand + self.uncertainty
        other_upper = other.measurand + other.uncertainty
        return self_upper > other_upper

    def __ge__(self, other: object) -> bool:
        if isinstance(other, Quantity):
            other = Measurement(other, 0)
        if isinstance(other, Level):
            other = Measurement(other.quantify(), 0)

        if not isinstance(other, Measurement):
            return NotImplemented

        self_upper = self.measurand + self.uncertainty
        other_upper = other.measurand + other.uncertainty
        return self_upper >= other_upper

    def __add__(self, other: Union["Measurement", Quantity]) -> "Measurement":
        if isinstance(other, Quantity):
            other = Measurement(other, 0)

        if not isinstance(other, Measurement):
            return NotImplemented

        measurand = self.measurand + other.measurand
        uncertainty = (self.uncertainty**2 + other.uncertainty**2).root(2)
        return Measurement(measurand, uncertainty)

    __radd__ = __add__

    def __sub__(self, other: Union["Measurement", Quantity]) -> "Measurement":
        if isinstance(other, Quantity):
            other = Measurement(other, 0)

        if not isinstance(other, Measurement):
            return NotImplemented

        measurand = self.measurand - other.measurand
        uncertainty = (self.uncertainty**2 + other.uncertainty**2).root(2)
        return Measurement(measurand, uncertainty)

    def __rsub__(self, other: Union["Measurement", Quantity]) -> "Measurement":
        if isinstance(other, Quantity):
            other = Measurement(other, 0)

        if not isinstance(other, Measurement):
            return NotImplemented

        return other - self

    def __mul__(self, other: Union["Measurement", Quantity]) -> "Measurement":
        if isinstance(other, Quantity):
            other = Measurement(other, 0)

        if not isinstance(other, Measurement):
            return NotImplemented

        measurand = self.measurand * other.measurand
        uncertainty = self._join_uncertainties(measurand, other)
        return Measurement(measurand, uncertainty)

    __rmul__ = __mul__

    def __truediv__(self, other: Union["Measurement", Quantity]) -> "Measurement":
        if isinstance(other, Quantity):
            other = Measurement(other, 0)

        if not isinstance(other, Measurement):
            return NotImplemented

        measurand = self.measurand / other.measurand
        uncertainty = self._join_uncertainties(measurand, other)
        return Measurement(measurand, uncertainty)

    def _join_uncertainties(self, measurand: Quantity, other: "Measurement") -> float:
        return math.sqrt(
            _mul(
                _pow(measurand.magnitude, 2),
                (
                    _add(
                        _div(
                            _pow(self.uncertainty.magnitude, 2),
                            _pow(self.measurand.magnitude, 2),
                        ),
                        _div(
                            _pow(other.uncertainty.magnitude, 2),
                            _pow(other.measurand.magnitude, 2),
                        ),
                    )
                ),
            )
        )

    def __rtruediv__(self, other: Union["Measurement", Quantity]) -> "Measurement":
        if isinstance(other, Quantity):
            other = Measurement(other, 0)

        if not isinstance(other, Measurement):
            return NotImplemented

        return other / self

    def __pow__(self, exponent: int) -> "Measurement":
        if not isinstance(exponent, int):
            return NotImplemented

        measurand = self.measurand**exponent
        uncertainty = math.sqrt(
            _pow(
                _mul(
                    exponent,
                    _mul(
                        _pow(self.measurand.magnitude, 2),
                        self.uncertainty.magnitude,
                    ),
                ),
                2,
            )
        )
        return Measurement(measurand, uncertainty)

uncertainty_percent: float property

The uncertainty, expressed as a percent of the magnitude of the measurand

uncertainty_ratio: float property

The uncertainty, expressed as a fraction of the magnitude of the measurand

measured.approximately(quantity: Union[Quantity, Level], within: float = 1e-07) -> Measurement

An approximation used mostly for making test assertions. This special type of measurement uses a relative value for uncertainty and overrides its repr to be more useful for test assertions.

Parameters:

quantity (Quantity): the quantity to approximate

within (float): An uncertainty of the measurement relative to the quantity

Examples:

>>> from measured import approximately
>>> from measured.si import Meter
>>> assert 5.2 * Meter == approximately(5 * Meter, 0.3)
>>> assert 5.2 * Meter < approximately(6 * Meter, 0.5)
Source code in src/measured/__init__.py 
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def approximately(
    quantity: Union[Quantity, Level], within: float = 1e-7
) -> Measurement:
    """
    An approximation used mostly for making test assertions.  This special type of
    measurement uses a relative value for uncertainty and overrides its repr to be
    more useful for test assertions.

    Parameters:

        quantity (Quantity): the quantity to approximate

        within (float): An uncertainty of the measurement relative to the quantity

    Examples:

        >>> from measured import approximately
        >>> from measured.si import Meter
        >>> assert 5.2 * Meter == approximately(5 * Meter, 0.3)
        >>> assert 5.2 * Meter < approximately(6 * Meter, 0.5)
    """
    if isinstance(quantity, Level):
        quantity = quantity.quantify()

    uncertainty = _mul(quantity.magnitude or 1.0, within)
    return Measurement(quantity, uncertainty)